Problems can occur at any stage of the process. Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from forgetfulness to amnesia. Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. Two other types of sensory memory have been extensively studied: echoic memory the auditory sensory store and haptic memory the tactile sensory store.
Sensory memory is not involved in higher cognitive functions like short- and long-term memory; it is not consciously controlled. The role of sensory memory is to provide a detailed representation of our entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information are extracted by short-term memory and processed by working memory. Short-term memory is also known as working memory. However, items can be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory via processes like rehearsal.
An example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until you can write it down. When we walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a video game, we are using procedural memory.
Procedural memory allows us to perform complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them. There is no way to tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it. The idea of implicit memory helps explain how infants are able to learn.
The ability to crawl, walk, and talk are procedures, and these skills are easily and efficiently developed while we are children despite the fact that as adults we have no conscious memory of having learned them. A second type of implicit memory is classical conditioning effects , in which we learn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli such as a sound or a light with another stimulus such as food , which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation.
The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus the sound begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus the food did before the learning. The final type of implicit memory is known as priming , or changes in behaviour as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently.
Priming refers both to the activation of knowledge e. One measure of the influence of priming on implicit memory is the word fragment test , in which a person is asked to fill in missing letters to make words. You can try this yourself: First, try to complete the following word fragments, but work on each one for only three or four seconds. Do any words pop into mind quickly? Once a concept is primed it influences our behaviours, for instance, on word fragment tests.
Our everyday behaviours are influenced by priming in a wide variety of situations. Seeing an advertisement for cigarettes may make us start smoking, seeing the flag of our home country may arouse our patriotism, and seeing a student from a rival school may arouse our competitive spirit.
And these influences on our behaviours may occur without our being aware of them. One of the most important characteristics of implicit memories is that they are frequently formed and used automatically , without much effort or awareness on our part. Furthermore, for half of the research participants, the words were related to stereotypes of the elderly. These participants saw words such as the following:.
The other half of the research participants also made sentences, but from words that had nothing to do with elderly stereotypes. The purpose of this task was to prime stereotypes of elderly people in memory for some of the participants but not for others. When the research participant had gathered all of his or her belongings, thinking that the experiment was over, the experimenter thanked him or her for participating and gave directions to the closest elevator.
Then, without the participants knowing it, the experimenters recorded the amount of time that the participant spent walking from the doorway of the experimental room toward the elevator. To determine if these priming effects occurred out of the awareness of the participants, Bargh and his colleagues asked still another group of students to complete the priming task and then to indicate whether they thought the words they had used to make the sentences had any relationship to each other, or could possibly have influenced their behaviour in any way.
These students had no awareness of the possibility that the words might have been related to the elderly or could have influenced their behaviour. Another way of understanding memory is to think about it in terms of stages that describe the length of time that information remains available to us. According to this approach see Figure 9. But not all information makes it through all three stages; most of it is forgotten.
Whether the information moves from shorter-duration memory into longer-duration memory or whether it is lost from memory entirely depends on how the information is attended to and processed.
Sensory memory refers to the brief storage of sensory information. Sensory memory is a memory buffer that lasts only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for more processing, is forgotten. The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain some time to process the incoming sensations, and to allow us to see the world as an unbroken stream of events rather than as individual pieces.
Visual sensory memory is known as iconic memory. Iconic memory was first studied by the psychologist George Sperling In his research, Sperling showed participants a display of letters in rows, similar to that shown in Figure 9. Then, Sperling gave his participants a recall test in which they were asked to name all the letters that they could remember. On average, the participants could remember only about one-quarter of the letters that they had seen.
Sperling reasoned that the participants had seen all the letters but could remember them only very briefly, making it impossible for them to report them all. To test this idea, in his next experiment, he first showed the same letters, but then after the display had been removed, he signaled to the participants to report the letters from either the first, second, or third row. In this condition, the participants now reported almost all the letters in that row. Auditory sensory memory is known as echoic memory.
How do System 1 and System 2 thinking relate to teaching and learning? In an educational context, System 1 is associated with memorization and recall of information, while System 2 describes more analytical or critical thinking.
Memory and recall, as a part of System 1 cognition, are focused on in the rest of these notes. As mentioned above, System 1 is characterized by its fast, unconscious recall of previously-memorized information. Classroom activities that would draw heavily on System 1 include memorized multiplication tables, as well as multiple-choice exam questions that only need exact regurgitation from a source such as a textbook.
These kinds of tasks do not require students to actively analyze what is being asked of them beyond reiterating memorized material. System 2 thinking becomes necessary when students are presented with activities and assignments that require them to provide a novel solution to a problem, engage in critical thinking, or apply a concept outside of the domain in which it was originally presented. It may be tempting to think of learning beyond the primary school level as being all about System 2, all the time.
In other words, critical thinking requires a lot of memorized knowledge and intuitive, automatic judgments to be performed quickly and accurately. In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of information retention over time. It is an integral part of human cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon past events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the present.
Memory also gives individuals a framework through which to make sense of the present and future. As such, memory plays a crucial role in teaching and learning. There are three main processes that characterize how memory works. These processes are encoding, storage, and retrieval or recall. Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction of memory. These memories mostly consist of the information we are currently focusing on and thinking about. Finally, some memories are capable of enduring much longer, lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades.
Most of these long-term memories lie outside of our immediate awareness, but we can draw them into consciousness when they are needed. To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence how memories are retrieved such as the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.
Of course, this process is not always perfect. This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval problem known as lethologica or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems.
But how is information organized in memory? One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories.
A memory of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that location. For example, thinking about a particular campus building might trigger memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing with peers. While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage: short-term memory. Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about.
In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-term memory. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory.
Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. The term "short-term memory" is often used interchangeably with "working memory," which refers to the processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information.
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information.
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